Ind AS - 008 - Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors - Companies (Indian Accounting Standards) Rules, 2015

Indian Accounting Standard (Ind AS) 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors (This Indian Accounting Standard includes paragraphs set in bold type and plain type, which have equal authority. Paragraphs in bold type indicate the main principles.) Objective 1 The objective of this Standard is to prescribe the criteria for selecting and changing accounting policies, together with the accounting treatment and disclosure of changes in accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and corrections of errors. The Standard is intended to enhance the relevance and reliability of an entity s financial statements, and the comparability of those financial statements over time and with the financial statements of other entities. 2 Disclosure requirements for accounting policies, except those for changes in accounting policies, are set out in Ind AS 1, Presentation of Financial Statements. Scope 3 This Standard shall be applied in selecting and applying accounting policies, and accounting for changes in accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and corrections of prior period errors. 4 The tax effects of corrections of prior period errors and of retrospective adjustments made to apply changes in accounting policies are accounted for and disclosed in accordance with Ind AS 12, Income Taxes. Definitions 5 The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified: Accounting policies are the specific principles, bases, conventions, rules and practices applied by an entity in preparing and presenting financial statements. 13 [ Accounting estimates are monetary amounts in financial statements that are subject to measurement uncertainty.] Indian Accounting Standards (Ind ASs) are Standards prescribed under Section 133 of the Companies Act, 2013. 3 [ the term Material , used in this Standard shall have the same meaning as assigned to it in paragraph 7 of Ind AS 1. ] Prior period errors are omissions from, and misstatements in, the entity s financial statements for one or more prior periods arising from a failure to use, or misuse of, reliable information that: (a) was available when financial statements for those periods were approved for issue; and (b) could reasonably be expected to have been obtained and taken into account in the preparation and presentation of those financial statements. Such errors include the effects of mathematical mistakes, mistakes in applying accounting policies, oversights or misinterpretations of facts, and fraud. Retrospective application is applying a new accounting policy to transactions, other events and conditions as if that policy had always been applied. Retrospective restatement is correcting the recognition, measurement and disclosure of amounts of elements of financial statements as if a prior period error had never occurred. Impracticable Applying a requirement is impracticable when the entity cannot apply it after making every reasonable effort to do so. For a particular prior period, it is impracticable to apply a change in an accounting policy retrospectively or to make a retrospective restatement to correct an error if: (a) the effects of the retrospective application or retrospective restatement are not determinable; (b) the retrospective application or retrospective restatement requires assumptions about what management s intent would have been in that period; or (c) the retrospective application or retrospective restatement requires significant estimates of amounts and it is impossible to distinguish objectively information about those estimates that: (i) provides evidence of circumstances that existed on the date(s) as at which those amounts are to be recognised, measured or disclosed; and (ii) would have been available when the financial statements for that prior period were approved for issue from other information. Prospective application of a change in accounting policy and of recognising the effect of a change in an accounting estimate, respectively, are: (a) applying the new accounting policy to transactions, other events and conditions occurring after the date as at which the policy is changed; and (b) recognising the effect of the change in the accounting estimate in the current and future periods affected by the change. 4 [ 6 [Refer Appendix 1] ] Accounting policies Selection and application of accounting policies 7 When an Ind AS specifically applies to a transaction, other event or condition, the accounting policy or policies applied to that item shall be determined by applying the Ind AS. 8 Ind ASs set out accounting policies that result in financial statements containing relevant and reliable information about the transactions, other events and conditions to which they apply. Those policies need not be applied when the effect of applying them is immaterial. However, it is inappropriate to make, or leave uncorrected, immaterial departures from Ind ASs to achieve a particular presentation of an entity s financial position, financial performance or cash flows. 9 Ind ASs are accompanied by guidance that is integral part of Ind AS to assist entities in applying their requirements. Such guidance is mandatory. 10 In the absence of an Ind AS that specifically applies to a transaction, other event or condition, management shall use its judgement in developing and applying an accounting policy that results in information that is: (a) relevant to the economic decision-making needs of users; and (b) reliable, in that the financial statements: (i) represent faithfully the financial position, financial performance and cash flows of the entity; (ii) reflect the economic substance of transactions, other events and conditions, and not merely the legal form; (iii) are neutral, ie free from bias; (iv) are prudent; and (v) are complete in all material respects. 11 In making the judgement described in paragraph 10, management shall refer to, and consider the applicability of, the following sources in descending order: (a) the requirements in Ind ASs dealing with similar and related issues; and (b) the definitions, recognition criteria and measurement concepts for assets, liabilities, income and expenses in the 7 [ Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting under Indian Accounting Standards (Conceptual Framework) ***issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India]. 12 In making the judgement described in paragraph 10, management may also first consider the most recent pronouncements of International Accounting Standards Board and in absence thereof those of the other standard-setting bodies that use a similar conceptual framework to develop accounting standards, other accounting literature and accepted industry practices, to the extent that these do not conflict with the sources in paragraph 11. Consistency of accounting policies 13 An entity shall select and apply its accounting policies consistently for similar transactions, other events and conditions, unless an Ind AS specifically requires or permits categorisation of items for which different policies may be appropriate. If an Ind AS requires or permits such categorisation, an appropriate accounting policy shall be selected and applied consistently to each category. Changes in accounting policies 14 An entity shall change an accounting policy only if the change: (a) is required by an Ind AS; or (b) results in the financial statements providing reliable and more relevant information about the effects of transactions, other events or conditions on the entity s financial position, financial performance or cash flows. 15 Users of financial statements need to be able to compare the financial statements of an entity over time to identify trends in its financial position, financial performance and cash flows. Therefore, the same accounting policies are applied within each period and from one period to the next unless a change in accounting policy meets one of the criteria in paragraph 14. 16 The following are not changes in accounting policies: (a) the application of an accounting policy for transactions, other events or conditions that differ in substance from those previously occurring; and (b) the application of a new accounting policy for transactions, other events or conditions that did not occur previously or were immaterial. 17 The initial application of a policy to revalue assets in accordance with Ind AS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment, or Ind AS 38, Intangible Assets, is a change in an accounting policy to be dealt with as a revaluation in accordance with Ind AS 16 or Ind AS 38, rather than in accordance with this Standard. 18 Paragraphs 19 31 do not apply to the change in accounting policy described in paragraph 17. Applying changes in accounting policies 19 Subject to paragraph 23: (a) an entity shall account for a change in accounting policy resulting from the initial application of an Ind AS in accordance with the specific transitional provisions, if any, in that Ind AS; and (b) when an entity changes an accounting policy upon initial application of an Ind AS that does not include specific transitional provisions applying to that change, or changes an accounting policy voluntarily, it shall apply the change retrospectively. 20 For the purpose of this Standard, early application of an Ind AS is not a voluntary change in accounting policy. 21 In the absence of an Ind AS that specifically applies to a transaction, other event or condition, management may, in accordance with paragraph 12, apply an accounting policy from the most recent pronouncements of International Accounting Standards Board and in absence thereof those of the other standard-setting bodies that use a similar conceptual framework to develop accounting standards. If, following an amendment of such a pronouncement, the entity chooses to change an accounting policy, that change is accounted for and disclosed as a voluntary change in accounting policy. Retrospective application 22 Subject to paragraph 23, when a change in accounting policy is applied retrospectively in accordance with paragraph 19(a) or (b), the entity shall adjust the opening balance of each affected component of equity for the earliest prior period presented and the other comparative amounts disclosed for each prior period presented as if the new accounting policy had always been applied. Limitations on retrospective application 23 When retrospective application is required by paragraph 19(a) or (b), a change in accounting policy shall be applied retrospectively except to the extent that it is impracticable to determine either the period-specific effects or the cumulative effect of the change. 24 When it is impracticable to determine the period-specific effects of changing an accounting policy on comparative information for one or more prior periods presented, the entity shall apply the new accounting policy to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities as at the beginning of the earliest period for which retrospective application is practicable, which may be the current period, and shall make a corresponding adjustment to the opening balance of each affected component of equity for that period. 25 When it is impracticable to determine the cumulative effect, at the beginning of the current period, of applying a new accounting policy to all prior periods, the entity shall adjust the comparative information to apply the new accounting policy prospectively from the earliest date practicable. 26 When an entity applies a new accounting policy retrospectively, it applies the new accounting policy to comparative information for prior periods as far back as is practicable. Retrospective application to a prior period is not practicable unless it is practicable to determine the cumulative effect on the amounts in both the opening and closing balance sheets for that period. The amount of the resulting adjustment relating to periods before those presented in the financial statements is made to the opening balance of each affected component of equity of the earliest prior period presented. Usually the adjustment is made to retained earnings. However, the adjustment may be made to another component of equity (for example, to comply with an Ind AS). Any other information about prior periods, such as historical summaries of financial data, is also adjusted as far back as is practicable. 27 When it is impracticable for an entity to apply a new accounting policy retrospectively, because it cannot determine the cumulative effect of applying the policy to all prior periods, the entity, in accordance with paragraph 25, applies the new policy prospectively from the start of the earliest period practicable. It therefore disregards the portion of the cumulative adjustment to assets, liabilities and equity arising before that date. Changing an accounting policy is permitted even if it is impracticable to apply the policy prospectively for any prior period. Paragraphs 50 53 provide guidance on when it is impracticable to apply a new accounting policy to one or more prior periods. Disclosure 28 When initial application of an Ind AS has an effect on the current period or any prior period, would have such an effect except that it is impracticable to determine the amount of the adjustment, or might have an effect on future periods, an entity shall disclose: (a) the title of the Ind AS; (b) when applicable, that the change in accounting policy is made in accordance with its transitional provisions; (c) the nature of the change in accounting policy; (d) when applicable, a description of the transitional provisions; (e) when applicable, the transitional provisions that might have an effect on future periods; (f) for the current period and each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the amount of the adjustment: (i) for each financial statement line item affected; and (ii) if Ind AS 33, Earnings per Share, applies to the entity, for basic and diluted earnings per share; (g) the amount of the adjustment relating to periods before those presented, to the extent practicable; and (h) if retrospective application required by paragraph 19(a) or (b) is impracticable for a particular prior period, or for periods before those presented, the circumstances that led to the existence of that condition and a description of how and from when the change in accounting policy has been applied. Financial statements of subsequent periods need not repeat these disclosures. 29 When a voluntary change in accounting policy has an effect on the current period or any prior period, would have an effect on that period except that it is impracticable to determine the amount of the adjustment, or might have an effect on future periods, an entity shall disclose: (a) the nature of the change in accounting policy; (b) the reasons why applying the new accounting policy provides reliable and more relevant information; (c) for the current period and each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the amount of the adjustment: (i) for each financial statement line item affected; and (ii) if Ind AS 33 applies to the entity, for basic and diluted earnings per share; (d) the amount of the adjustment relating to periods before those presented, to the extent practicable; and (e) if retrospective application is impracticable for a particular prior period, or for periods before those presented, the circumstances that led to the existence of that condition and a description of how and from when the change in accounting policy has been applied. Financial statements of subsequent periods need not repeat these disclosures. 30 When an entity has not applied a new Ind AS that has been issued but is not yet effective, the entity shall disclose: (a) this fact; and (b) known or reasonably estimable information relevant to assessing the possible impact that application of the new Ind AS will have on the entity s financial statements in the period of initial application. 31 In complying with paragraph 30, an entity considers disclosing: (a) the title of the new Ind AS; (b) the nature of the impending change or changes in accounting policy; (c) the date by which application of the Ind AS is required; (d) the date as at which it plans to apply the Ind AS initially; and (e) either: (i) a discussion of the impact that initial application of the Ind AS is expected to have on the entity s financial statements; or (ii) if that impact is not known or reasonably estimable, a statement to that effect. 8 [Accounting estimates 32 An accounting policy may require items in financial statements to be measured in a way that involves measurement uncertainty that is, the accounting policy may require such items to be measured at monetary amounts that cannot be observed directly and must instead be estimated. In such a case, an entity develops an accounting estimate to achieve the objective set out by the accounting policy. Developing accounting estimates involves the use of judgements or assumptions based on the latest available, reliable information. Examples of accounting estimates include: (a) a loss allowance for expected credit losses, applying Ind AS 109, Financial Instruments; (b) the net realisable value of an item of inventory, applying Ind AS 2 Inventories; (c) the fair value of an asset or liability, applying Ind AS 113, Fair Value Measurement; (d) the depreciation expense for an item of property, plant and equipment, applying Ind AS 16; and (e) a provision for warranty obligations, applying Ind AS 37, Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets. 32A An entity uses measurement techniques and inputs to develop an accounting estimate. Measurement techniques include estimation techniques (for example, techniques used to measure a loss allowance for expected credit losses applying Ind AS 109) and valuation techniques (for example, techniques used to measure the fair value of an asset or liability applying Ind AS 113). 32B The term estimate in Ind AS sometimes refers to an estimate that is not an accounting estimate as defined in this Standard. For example, it sometimes refers to an input used in developing accounting estimates. ] 33 The use of reasonable estimates is an essential part of the preparation of financial statements and does not undermine their reliability. 9 [ 34 An entity may need to change an accounting estimate if changes occur in the circumstances on which the accounting estimate was based or as a result of new information, new developments or more experience. By its nature, a change in an accounting estimate does not relate to prior periods and is not the correction of an error. 34A The effects on an accounting estimate of a change in an input or a change in a measurement technique are changes in accounting estimates unless they result from the correction of prior period errors.. ] 35 A change in the measurement basis applied is a change in an accounting policy, and is not a change in an accounting estimate. When it is difficult to distinguish a change in an accounting policy from a change in an accounting estimate, the change is treated as a change in an accounting estimate. 10 [Applying changes in accounting estimates ] 36 The effect of change in an accounting estimate, other than a change to which paragraph 37 applies, shall be recognised prospectively by including it in profit or loss in: (a) the period of the change, if the change affects that period only; or (b) the period of the change and future periods, if the change affects both. 37 To the extent that a change in an accounting estimate gives rise to changes in assets and liabilities, or relates to an item of equity, it shall be recognised by adjusting the carrying amount of the related asset, liability or equity item in the period of the change. 11 [ 38 Prospective recognition of the effect of a change in an accounting estimate means that the change is applied to transactions, other events and conditions from the date of that change. A change in an accounting estimate may affect only the current period s profit or loss, or the profit or loss of both the current period and future periods. For example, a change in a loss allowance for expected credit losses affects only the current period s profit or loss and therefore is recognised in the current period. However, a change in the estimated useful life of, or the expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in, a depreciable asset affects depreciation expense for the current period and for each future period during the asset s remaining useful life. In both cases, the effect of the change relating to the current period is recognised as income or expense in the current period. The effect, if any, on future periods is recognised as income or expense in those future periods. ] Disclosure 39 An entity shall disclose the nature and amount of a change in an accounting estimate that has an effect in the current period or is expected to have an effect in future periods, except for the disclosure of the effect on future periods when it is impracticable to estimate that effect. 40 If the amount of the effect in future periods is not disclosed because estimating it is impracticable, an entity shall disclose that fact. Errors 41 Errors can arise in respect of the recognition, measurement, presentation or disclosure of elements of financial statements. Financial statements do not comply with Ind ASs if they contain either material errors or immaterial errors made intentionally to achieve a particular presentation of an entity s financial position, financial performance or cash flows. Potential current period errors discovered in that period are corrected before the financial statements are approved for issue. However, material errors are sometimes not discovered until a subsequent period, and these prior period errors are corrected in the comparative information presented in the financial statements for that subsequent period (see paragraphs 42 47). 42 Subject to paragraph 43, an entity shall correct material prior period errors retrospectively in the first set of financial statements approved for issue after their discovery by: (a) restating the comparative amounts for the prior period(s) presented in which the error occurred; or (b) if the error occurred before the earliest prior period presented, restating the opening balances of assets, liabilities and equity for the earliest prior period presented. Limitations on retrospective restatement 43 A prior period error shall be corrected by retrospective restatement except to the extent that it is impracticable to determine either the period-specific effects or the cumulative effect of the error. 44 When it is impracticable to determine the period-specific effects of an error on comparative information for one or more prior periods presented, the entity shall restate the opening balances of assets, liabilities and equity for the earliest period for which retrospective restatement is practicable (which may be the current period). 45 When it is impracticable to determine the cumulative effect, at the beginning of the current period, of an error on all prior periods, the entity shall restate the comparative information to correct the error prospectively from the earliest date practicable. 46 The correction of a prior period error is excluded from profit or loss for the period in which the error is discovered. Any information presented about prior periods, including any historical summaries of financial data, is restated as far back as is practicable. 47 When it is impracticable to determine the amount of an error (eg a mistake in applying an accounting policy) for all prior periods, the entity, in accordance with paragraph 45, restates the comparative information prospectively from the earliest date practicable. It therefore disregards the portion of the cumulative restatement of assets, liabilities and equity arising before that date. Paragraphs 50 53 provide guidance on when it is impracticable to correct an error for one or more prior periods. 12 [ 48 Corrections of errors are distinguished from changes in accounting estimates. Accounting estimates by their nature are approximations that may need changing as additional information becomes known. For example, the gain or loss recognised on the outcome of a contingency is not the correction of an error. ] Disclosure of prior period errors 49 In applying paragraph 42, an entity shall disclose the following: (a) the nature of the prior period error; (b) for each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the amount of the correction: (i) for each financial statement line item affected; and (ii) if Ind AS 33 applies to the entity, for basic and diluted earnings per share; (c) the amount of the correction at the beginning of the earliest prior period presented; and (d) if retrospective restatement is impracticable for a particular prior period, the circumstances that led to the existence of that condition and a description of how and from when the error has been corrected. Financial statements of subsequent periods need not repeat these disclosures. Impracticability in respect of retrospective application and retrospective restatement 50 In some circumstances, it is impracticable to adjust comparative information for one or more prior periods to achieve comparability with the current period. For example, data may not have been collected in the prior period(s) in a way that allows either retrospective application of a new accounting policy (including, for the purpose of paragraphs 51 53, its prospective application to prior periods) or retrospective restatement to correct a prior period error, and it may be impracticable to recreate the information. 51 It is frequently necessary to make estimates in applying an accounting policy to elements of financial statements recognised or disclosed in respect of transactions, other events or conditions. Estimation is inherently subjective, and estimates may be developed after the reporting period. Developing estimates is potentially more difficult when retrospectively applying an accounting policy or making a retrospective restatement to correct a prior period error, because of the longer period of time that might have passed since the affected transaction, other event or condition occurred. However, the objective of estimates related to prior periods remains the same as for estimates made in the current period, namely, for the estimate to reflect the circumstances that existed when the transaction, other event or condition occurred. 52 Therefore, retrospectively applying a new accounting policy or correcting a prior period error requires distinguishing information that (a) provides evidence of circumstances that existed on the date(s) as at which the transaction, other event or condition occurred, and (b) would have been available when the financial statements for that prior period were approved for issue from other information. For some types of estimates (eg a fair value measurement that uses significant unobservable inputs ), it is impracticable to distinguish these types of information. When retrospective application or retrospective restatement would require making a significant estimate for which it is impossible to distinguish these two types of information, it is impracticable to apply the new accounting policy or correct the prior period error retrospectively. 53 Hindsight should not be used when applying a new accounting policy to, or correcting amounts for, a prior period, either in making assumptions about what management s intentions would have been in a prior period or estimating the amounts recognised, measured or disclosed in a prior period. For example, when an entity corrects a prior period error in calculating its liability for employees accumulated sick leave in accordance with Ind AS 19, Employee Benefits, it disregards information about an unusually severe influenza season during the next period that became available after the financial statements for the prior period were approved for issue. The fact that significant estimates are frequently required when amending comparative information presented for prior periods does not prevent reliable adjustment or correction of the comparative information. 5 [ Effective date and transition 54-54G [Refer Appendix 1] 54H Definition of Material (Amendments to Ind AS 1 and Ind AS 8), amended paragraph 7 of Ind AS 1 and paragraph 5 of Ind AS 8, and deleted paragraph 6 of Ind AS 8. An entity shall apply those amendments prospectively for annual periods beginning on or after the 1st April, 2020. ] 10 [ 54I Definition of Accounting Estimates, amended paragraphs 5, 32, 34, 38 and 48 and added paragraphs 32A, 32B and 34A. An entity shall apply these amendments for annual reporting periods beginning on or after 1 April 2023. An entity shall apply the amendments to changes in accounting estimates and changes in accounting policies that occur on or after the beginning of the first annual reporting period in which it applies the amendments. ] Appendix A References to matters contained in other Indian Accounting Standards This Appendix is an integral part of the Ind AS. 1 [(1)] Appendix B, Liabilities arising from Participating in a Specific Market- Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment, contained in Ind AS 37, Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets, makes reference to (Ind AS) 8. 2 [2. Appendix B, Foreign Currency Transactions and Advance Consideration , contained in Ind AS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates, makes reference to Ind AS 8.] Appendix 1 Note: This Appendix is not a part of the Indian Accounting Standard. The purpose of this Appendix is only to bring out the major differences, if any, between Indian Accounting Standard (Ind AS) 8 and the corresponding International Accounting Standard (IAS) 8, Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors, issued by the International Accounting Standards Board. Comparison with IAS 8, Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors 1 Different terminology is used in this standard, eg, the term balance sheet is used instead of Statement of financial position and Statement of profit and loss is used instead of Statement of comprehensive income . The words approval of the financial statements for issue, have been used instead of authorisation of the financial statements for issue in the context of financial statements considered for the purpose of events after the reporting period. 2. Paragraph 9 dealing with status of guidance given along with the Ind ASs forming integral and non-integral part of the standard, has been modified to delete the text given in the context of the Guidance forming non-integral part of the Standard as such guidance has not been included in the Standards. 3. In paragraph 12 of Ind AS 8, it is mentioned that in absence of an Ind AS, management may first consider the most recent pronouncements of International Accounting Standards Board. 6 [ 4 Paragraph 6 appears as 'deleted' in IAS 8. In order to maintain consistency with paragraph numbers of IAS 8, the paragraph number is retained in Ind AS 8. 5 Paragraphs 54-54E of IAS 8 related to Effective Date and transition have not been included in Ind AS 8 as these are not relevant in Indian context. Paragraphs 54F-54G are not included since these relate to amendments due to Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting under IFRS Standards for which corresponding Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting under Indian Accounting Standards is under formulation. However, in order to maintain consistency with paragraph numbers of IAS 8, these paragraph numbers are retained in Ind AS 8. ] Also see in PDF Indian Accounting Standard (Ind AS) 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors ******************** Notes:- 1. Re-numbered vide F. No. 01/01/2009-CL-V(Part VI) Dated 28-03-2018 , w.e.f. 1st day of April, 2018 2. Inserted vide F. No. 01/01/2009-CL-V(Part VI) Dated 28-03-2018 , w.e.f. 1st day of April, 2018 3. Substituted vide NOTIFICATION NO. G.S.R. 463(E) dated 24-07-2020 before it was read as Material Omissions or misstatements of items are material if they could, individually or collectively, influence the economic decisions that users make on the basis of the financial statements. Materiality depends on the size and nature of the omission or misstatement judged in the surrounding circumstances. The size or nature of the item, or a combination of both, could be the determining factor. 4. Substituted vide NOTIFICATION NO. G.S.R. 463(E) dated 24-07-2020 before it was read as 6 Assessing whether an omission or misstatement could influence economic decisions of users, and so be material, requires consideration of the characteristics of those users. The Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements in accordance with Indian Accounting Standards issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India states in paragraph 25 that users are assumed to have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and accounting and a willingness to study the information with reasonable diligence. Therefore, the assessment needs to take into account how users with such attributes could reasonably be expected to be influenced in making economic decisions. 5. Inserted vide NOTIFICATION NO. G.S.R. 463(E) dated 24-07-2020 6. Inserted vide NOTIFICATION NO. G.S.R. 463(E) dated 24-07-2020 7. Substituted vide NOTIFICATION NO. G.S.R. 419(E) dated 18-06-2021 before it was read as Framework 8. Substituted vide Notification G.S.R. 242(E), dated 31.03.2023 w.e.f. 01.04.2023, before it was read as, Changes in accounting estimates 32 As a result of the uncertainties inherent in business activities, many items in financial statements cannot be measured with precision but can only be estimated. Estimation involves judgements based on the latest available, reliable information. For example, estimates may be required of: (a) bad debts; (b) inventory obsolescence; (c) the fair value of financial assets or financial liabilities; (d) the useful lives of, or expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in, depreciable assets; and (e) warranty obligations. 9. Substituted vide Notification G.S.R. 242(E), dated 31.03.2023 w.e.f. 01.04.2023, before it was read as, 34 An estimate may need revision if changes occur in the circumstances on which the estimate was based or as a result of new information or more experience. By its nature, the revision of an estimate does not relate to prior periods and is not the correction of an error 10. Inserted vide Notification G.S.R. 242(E), dated 31.03.2023 w.e.f. 01.04.2023 11. Substituted vide Notification G.S.R. 242(E), dated 31.03.2023 w.e.f. 01.04.2023, before it was read as, 38 Prospective recognition of the effect of a change in an accounting estimate means that the change is applied to transactions, other events and conditions from the date of the change in estimate. A change in an accounting estimate may affect only the current period s profit or loss, or the profit or loss of both the current period and future periods. For example, a change in the estimate of the amount of bad debts affects only the current period s profit or loss and therefore is recognised in the current period. However, a change in the estimated useful life of, or the expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in, a depreciable asset affects depreciation expense for the current period and for each future period during the asset s remaining useful life. In both cases, the effect of the change relating to the current period is recognised as income or expense in the current period. The effect, if any, on future periods is recognised as income or expense in those future periods 12. Substituted vide Notification G.S.R. 242(E), dated 31.03.2023 w.e.f. 01.04.2023, before it was read as, 48 Corrections of errors are distinguished from changes in accounting estimates. Accounting estimates by their nature are approximations that may need revision as additional information becomes known. For example, the gain or loss recognised on the outcome of a contingency is not the correction of an error 13. Substituted vide Notification G.S.R. 242(E), dated 31.03.2023 w.e.f. 01.04.2023, before it was read as, A change in accounting estimate is an adjustment of the carrying amount of an asset or a liability, or the amount of the periodic consumption of an asset, that results from the assessment of the present status of, and expected future benefits and obligations associated with, assets and liabilities. Changes in accounting estimates result from new information or new developments and, accordingly, are not corrections of errors.